VVIQ – The Original Questionnaire by Marks (1973)
The VVIQ (Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire) is the original instrument researchers use to assess how vivid visual imagery is. Here: its structure, use and limitations – and why our own test is called VST-16. New: you can fill in the original here for free.
- David Marks, 1973
- 16 items · 4 scenes
- Scale 1–5 · total 16–80
- Fill in the original for free
Take the original VVIQ
Here you can fill in David Marks' original questionnaire for free: 16 statements in four scenes, each rated with your eyes closed on a scale from 1 to 5. This is the common version following the 1995 instructions; the first version from 1973 additionally asks about each scene with eyes open. The result places your total in the ranges used by Wright et al. (2024).
The result is kept only in this browser tab, even after a reload. Once you close the tab, it is gone.
While you fill it in, your answers stay in this tab only and survive a reload there. After the result, only the total is kept. Nothing is sent to our servers.
The questionnaire above is the original by David Marks (1973), not developed by this site: wording as published on davidfmarks.net, instructions and scale in the 1995 version, ranges according to Wright et al. (2024). It is a self-report and not a diagnostic procedure. Our own test, the VST-16, is by contrast developed in-house and not independently validated.
Structure of the original VVIQ
The questionnaire consists of 16 items in four thematic groups, rated on a scale from 1 to 5. It measures how vividly people can mentally picture everyday scenes. Scores ≤ 32 are used in research as a convention for aphantasia (Dance et al. 2021, 2022; Dawes et al. 2020; Keogh et al. 2021; Wicken et al. 2021) — though the boundary is arbitrary and differs between studies (Blomkvist & Marks 2023).
The VVIQ asks only about visual imagery. It does not cover hearing, smell, taste, touch, bodily sensation or emotion – that is what the PSI-Q (Andrade et al. 2014) is for.
History and use in research
David Marks published the VVIQ in 1973 in the British Journal of Psychology. Aphantasia research since Zeman et al. (2015) also uses the VVIQ total score to describe people with very weak or absent visual imagery. Studies differ in which scores they count as aphantasia:
| Study | Classification of the VVIQ total score |
|---|---|
| Dawes et al. 2020 | ≤ 32: weak visual imagery |
| Zeman et al. 2020 | 16–23: aphantasia |
| Wright et al. 2024 | 16: aphantasia · 17–32: hypophantasia · 33–74: typical · 75–80: hyperphantasia |
Limitations of the instrument
- Self-reportThe VVIQ measures how vivid people judge their own imagery to be. Inner images cannot be compared directly with anyone else's – the answers depend on how each person interprets the scale.
- Arbitrary cut-offsMarks himself calls the cut-offs arbitrary; they differ between studies (Blomkvist & Marks 2023).
- Not a diagnosisA VVIQ score places your imagery on a spectrum. It is not a medical diagnosis – aphantasia is not a disease.
The original VVIQ and our VST-16
David Marks makes the VVIQ freely available on his website (davidfmarks.net) for researchers and interested individuals, and stresses that it is not a screening tool for clinical or neurological conditions. On his VVIQ-2 page Marks writes: “Researchers and interested individuals are free to use this questionnaire without seeking permission from the author”. Anyone who wants to compare results with the research literature should, according to Marks, keep to the original instructions and format; he advises against unvalidated versions such as those promoted by commercial organisations for profit. That is why you can fill in the original at the top of this page, in its English wording and with the source named. Alongside it we offer the VST-16: our own self-test with the same structure and items written in our own words.
The VST-16 adopts the structure of the original (16 items in 4 scenes, scale 1–5, total 16–80) but words every item anew. It has not been separately validated psychometrically. Its scores are therefore a guide and not directly comparable with scores from VVIQ studies. If you want to compare your score directly with studies, use the original.
Sources
- Marks, D. F. (1973). Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. British Journal of Psychology, 64(1), 17–24. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1973.tb01322.x
- Zeman, A., Dewar, M. & Della Sala, S. (2015). Lives without imagery – Congenital aphantasia. Cortex, 73, 378–380. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.05.019
- Dawes, A. J., Keogh, R., Andrillon, T. & Pearson, J. (2020). A cognitive profile of multi-sensory imagery, memory and dreaming in aphantasia. Scientific Reports, 10, 10022. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65705-7
- Zeman, A. et al. (2020). Phantasia – The psychological significance of lifelong visual imagery vividness extremes. Cortex, 130, 426–440. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.04.003
- Blomkvist, A. & Marks, D. F. (2023). Defining and ‘diagnosing’ aphantasia: Condition or individual difference? Cortex, 169, 220–234. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2023.09.004
- Wright, D. J. et al. (2024). An international estimate of the prevalence of differing visual imagery abilities. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1454107. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454107
Frequently asked questions about the VVIQ
What is the VVIQ?
The Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) is a questionnaire by David Marks (1973). With 16 items it assesses how vividly someone can picture scenes in their mind's eye. Each item is rated on a scale from 1 to 5; the total ranges from 16 to 80.
Can I take the original VVIQ here?
Yes, at the top of this page: free, no sign-up, in the original English wording that David Marks makes freely available. The result uses the ranges from Wright et al. (2024). Your total stays in your browser only – in the tab or, if you choose, on your device. Our own test, the VST-16, follows the same structure with items written in our own words and takes approx. 5 minutes.
Which VVIQ score counts as aphantasia?
There is no single cut-off. A common one is 32 or below (e.g. Dawes et al. 2020); Zeman et al. (2020) use 16–23; Wright et al. (2024) count only the minimum score of 16 as aphantasia and 17–32 as hypophantasia. Marks himself calls the cut-offs arbitrary (Blomkvist & Marks 2023).
How do the VVIQ and the VST-16 differ?
The VVIQ is the original research instrument. The VST-16 is our test: same structure (16 items, 4 scenes, scale 1–5), but items written in our own words and not separately validated. It is meant for personal orientation, not diagnosis.
Does the VVIQ also capture hyperphantasia?
Yes, the VVIQ covers the whole spectrum of visual imagery. Wright et al. (2024) classify scores of 75–80 as hyperphantasia. More on this, with a test of its own: Hyperphantasia Test.
Take the VST-16
Our own free VST-16 measures visual imagery: 16 scenes, approx. 5 minutes, instant result, no sign-up.
More tests & topics
- VST-16 TestOur free self-test following VVIQ methodology with items written in our own words.
- PSI-Q – the original for all sensesThe questionnaire by Andrade et al. (2014) covering seven sensory modalities.
- Hyperphantasia TestDo you have exceptionally vivid mental images? Find out if you are at the upper end of the spectrum.
Last reviewed: